embroidery

HISTORY OF EMBROIDERY BEFORE 1900
PART I

INTRODUCTION
The art of embroidery encompasses anything you can do with a needle and thread on different materials, but as Wilson (1973) points out, any definition of embroidery does not summon up visions of “the wonderful world of color and texture, or the exuberance of decorative fantasy that has become, through the ages, a part of a country’s heritage” (p. ix). In earlier societies, rulers, the nobility and elites from various parts of the world would embellish their garments with beautiful embroidered patterns representing nature, cultural traditions, and other imaginative designs. These patterns were stitched with colored threads of spun cotton, wool, silk, flax, and sometimes with filaments of silver, gold, and brass. The upper classes liked to display their wealth by stitching precious and semi-precious stones into an embroidered design (Ghare, 2000-2012; Lester, 1956, p. 58, 745; Morris, 2009). To ascertain the class exclusivity of embroidered garments some countries passed sumptuary laws. In England, a law decreed in 1574 that “none but barons and their betters should sport …gold or silver or pearl embroidery” (Durant & Durant, 1961, Part VII, p. 56). Up until the late 1800s, fashionable men, women and children wore clothing and accessories decorated with some type of embroidery stich.
Hand-embroidery is a time consuming and painstaking task. Before the invention of embroidery machines in the 1800s, embroidery was undertaken by those of privileged birth with leisure time to work the stitching such as noble women and convent women. The popularity of adorning one’s garments with embroidered patterns created a demand for highly skilled professional embroiderers.
In Part I of this article we briefly examine: the guilds and workshops established by skilled embroiderers; what constitutes the art of embroidery; inventions leading to machine embroidery; and, early specimens of embroidered clothing. Part II briefly describes some of the noteworthy garments belonging to the upper classes before 1900 that were embroidered with gold and silver threads or filaments, with precious and semi-precious stones superimposed in the patterns, and with patterns imitating nature and symbols.
EMBROIDERERS GUILDS AND WORKSHOPS
In response to the growing need for skilled embroiderers, a number of men became professional embroiderers. These men established guilds and workshops to ply their trade. Such workshops existed in Paris as early as 1258 (Durant, 1950, Part IV, p. 850). In medieval England, the most noted output of rich hand-embroidery using metal thread and silk came from the famous workshops called the Opus Anglicanum, or “English work” (Morris, 2009; Wikipedia, English Embroidery). There were also female embroiderers with a royal appointment, for instance, Elizabeth Johnson, formerly Leconte, who was appointed in 1746-7 to work in the English court (Rothstein, 1984, p. 23).
Men’s embroidered suits were in style in Europe from the late 1700s to the 1860s. In 1760, an embroiderers’ workshop in Lyons, France, began to produce elaborate patterns of embroidery on flat pieces of cloth for men’s suits. These pieces would be sent abroad to be used by local tailors. According to Angelino of Brioni (2000), the Spanish and Russian courts depended on Lyons for their embroidered cloth (p. 22). When men’s embroidered suits were replaced with plain suits after the 1860s, modish men would brighten up their suits with a white silk embroidered gilet (a type of vest), and an embroidered tie.
THE ART OF EMROIDERY
Up until the early 1900s, the art of embroidery was taught to young girls at home, in the community, and in girls’ convents, and academies. In the 1700 and 1800s the goal of education in the New England academies was to prepare young women for their social role, and needlework and embroidery were considered to be part of a girl’s polite education (Huber, 2007). In the Convents in Renaissance Florence, the teaching of embroidery and needlework served to inculcate in young women “the feminine ideals of domesticity, obedience, silence, and chastity” (Culpepper, 1999).
Lester (1956) reckons that some of the most beautiful pieces of embroidery of any age were produced in France by Church nuns in the 1600-1700s. She adds that their work encompasses all the recognized embroidery stitches still in use today (p. 103).
Wilson (1973) identifies four ancestral embroidery stitches, namely, the stem (used to fill whole areas and for shading), the chain (formed by loops of thread being drawn through one another to make a chain), the satin (used for slanting, padding, and back shading), and the cross stitch (used for creating geometric shapes). From these basic stitches an untold variation of other stiches has evolved over the centuries. For example, the whipped stitch that resembles a candy cane effect has its roots in the stem stitch; stitches such as the twisted, zigzag, braid, rope, and rosette are derived from the chain stitch; the plate and brick stitches are an outgrowth of the satin stitch; and, the herringbone and chessboard patterns have evolved from the cross stitch (ix, 30-80).
The artistry of embroidery is often compared to paintings. Wilson (1973) states that the chain stitches, for instance, “are so fine and the embroidery colors so cleverly blended that from a slight distance it is almost impossible to distinguish the embroideries from painting” (1974, p. 57-72). Embroidery as an art form is timeless and enduring. Embroidered garments may sometimes lose their fashion appeal, but when they reappear we cannot help but be enchanted by the delicate images, the colors, and the elegance they portray. Fashion designers with an eye for creating magic and beauty will generally feature richly embroidered clothing in their collections, for example, see Balmain, Fall 2012, Versace, 2012-2013, and many others.

EMBROIDERY MACHINES
Freehand stitched embroidery was revolutionized in the early 1800s by Joshua Heilmann, of Mulhouse, France, who invented the hand powered embroidery machine. Influenced by the workings of the early sewing machine, Isaak Ggrlobli, from St. Gallen, Switzerland, invented the embroidery shuttle in 1860. By the 1870s, hand powered embroidery looms that used multiple needles became available. These inventions were followed by the Schiffi embroidery machine that utilized a combination of a continuously threaded needle and a shuttle containing a bobbin with two pointed ends used for carrying the weft thread across between the warp threads. Further improvements were made to the embroidery machine over the years. The more recent computerized embroidery machines read patterns and stitch complex designs on fabric (Ghare, 2000-2012; SWF East, Inc., 2007-2011). These technological advancements lend themselves to mass production of embroidered garments, and to their affordability.SPECIMENS OF EARLY EMBROIDERY
Embroidered fabrics from early civilizations are a rarity due to their perishable nature. Most of the information we possess on early embroidered clothing comes from archeologists who have found a few surviving specimens and specialists who have studied drawings, paintings, sculptures, statues, vases, and manuscripts from different historical periods. In this section, reference is made to a few specimens of embroidered clothing that have been found in Siberia, China, England, and France dating as far back as 5000 BC.
A recent archaeological dig in Siberia uncovered the fossilized remains of heavily hand-stitched and decorated clothing dating back to the period 5000 to 6000 BC. The remains show drilled shells stitched into patterns on animal hides. Pieces of chain stitch embroidery worked in silk thread have been found in China dating back to the Warring States period (475-221 BC) (Morris, 2009).
Excavations in Lorraine and at Le Mans, in France, have disclosed specimens of linen tunics dating back to the Merovingian period (481-752 AD). These tunics were likely worn by the invading Franks. Some of the remnants found include a man’s knee-length tunic, called a gonelle, which is embroidered at the edges, and a woman’s long tunic called a stola, which is decorated with embroidered bands (Laver, 2002, p. 50).
A well-preserved embroidered stole and maniple (a long ecclesiastical band that hangs down when worn on the left arm) dating back to about 915 AD were found in St. Cuthbert’s tomb in Northumbria, in northern England. Cowans (2010), states that “the items are worked in gold threads and silks and stitches used are stem, split and surface couching.” She adds that the designs appear to be “influenced by manuscript images.” These vestments can be viewed at the Durham Cathedral; the greatest Norman building in England dating back to 1080 AD.
Perhaps one of the greatest pieces of early embroidered work is the Bayeux Tapestry, stitched in England around 1070 AD. The tapestry, measuring approximately 230 feet in length and 20 inches high, chronicles the Norman Conquest of England by William the Conqueror in 1066. There are scenes in the tapestry showing William the Conqueror (1028-1087) sitting in state, and the slaying of Harold of Essex, King of England (1022-1066). The embroidery stitches used are known as the Bayeux stich where threads are laid and then couched into place. The Bayeux tapestry provides illustrations of clothing, boats, castles, and the daily life in this era. There are also fantastically detailed trees, horses and armours. The borders of the tapestry are covered with dogs and mystical beasts drawn from early fables. The Bayeux Tapestry is exhibited at the Musée de la Tapisserie, in Bayeux, France. There are also videos on You Tube showing the whole tapestry (Cowans, 2010; Ghare, 2000-2012; SWF East, Inc., 2007-2011).

HISTORY OF EMBROIDERY BEFORE 1900, PART II

NOTEWORTHY EMBROIDERIES
Decorating clothing with a variety of colorful and intricate embroidered patterns can be traced back to early civilizations such as the Babylonians, Persians, Hebrews, Greeks, Egyptians, Moors, Romans, and Chinese, to name a few. According to Morris (2009), by 1500 AD embroideries had become more lavish in Europe and in other areas of the world than in the prior centuries. The art of hand-embroidering clothing remained fashionable in many countries up until the late 1800s. At that time, men abandoned wearing embroidered clothing, with the exception of white silk gilets delicately embroidered with sprigs of floral motifs (Angelino of Brioni, 2000, p. 18-22). Women, however, continued to trim some of their garments with delicate embroideries and to wear exquisitely stitched evening gowns.
The art of embroidery took many forms over the centuries, and the techniques used are endless as they can be worked in every imaginative pattern one can dream of. For instance, some patterns can be lightly embroidered with flat stitching to give them a delicate appearance or with large stiches for bold effect. Embroidered outlines can be spaced to give an airy feeling to the design. Some designs may be heavily embroidered with close textured and intricate stitches to provide a shaded look, geometric patterns, or to give the appearance of a painting. Other embroideries are composed of raised stitches, a buildup of layered stitches, padded stitches, and puffy couching to give the effect of a formalized flower with sweeping stems in a garden setting, for example. There are techniques such as matching the color of the stitching to the fabric (white on white), contrasting the colors (white on black), or mixing the colored threads. To add sparkle and enrich delicate and elaborate embroideries, patterns can be filled with colorful and sparling beads, pearls, jewels, sequins, little mirrors, etc. (Wilson, 1973).
A short article cannot capture the splendor of embroideries, but it can only supply a sampling of its loveliness. In this second part of an article on the History of Embroidery before 1900, we provide examples of gold, silver and gemstone embroideries, and embroideries imitating nature that embellished the garments worn by early rulers, the nobility, ecclesiasts, and the upper and middle classes.
GOLD, SILVER, AND GEMSTONE EMBROIDERIES
Adorning garments with gold and silver embroideries and inlaying gemstones in the patterns can be traced back to early civilizations.
In the 6th century BC, the Persians were recognized for their delicate gold embroidery on silk. In 2000 BC, the Babylonian kings were wearing tunics decorated with gold embroidery (Harris & Johnson, 1971, p. 36-38; 116-117). The royal costumes worn by the Egyptian ruler Tutankhamen and his Queen in 1350 BC were fabricated in fine materials, and the belts and collars were embroidered with gold and enamel (Laver, 2002, p. 16). By 30 BC, Roman Emperors and their entourage wore robes with patterns stitched with gold and silver threads. In the Spring of 219 AD, Elagabalus (203-222), the new Roman Emperor, entered Rome dressed in robes of purple silk embroidered with gold. He wore costly bracelets on his arms, a string of pearls around his neck, and a jeweled crown on his head (Durant, 1944, Part III, p. 373, 614). The Roman imperial consorts were known to wear court robes embroidered with multi –coloured floss silk and gold-wrapped thread (Vollmer, 2007, p. 15).
Stitching gemstones in embroidered patterns also has a long history. There are pictures of the Chinese dating as far back as 3500 BC in which they are depicted as wearing clothing with silk thread-embroideries inlaid with precious stones and pearls (Morris, 2009).
Lavishly Embroidered Garments Worn by European Nobility
Inspired by the beautiful embroideries of early Middle Eastern civilizations, high-ranking Europeans embellished their clothing with elaborate gold and silver embroideries, and gemstones would often be stitched in the patterns to display their wealth and status.
Edward the Confessor (1003, 4 or 5 -1066 AD), the last of the Anglo-Saxon kings of England, was known to wear a robe lavishly embroidered with gold which his accomplished wife Edgitha had stitched for him (Durant, 1950, Part IV, p. 833). William the Conqueror (1028-1087) was said to wear jewelled robes and cloaks stitched with gold (Cowans, 2010). A robe of state owned by Charles the Bold of Burgundy (1433-1477) was described to be so thickly inlaid with precious stones that it was then valued at 200,000 ducats, approximately $1,082,000 in 1950 dollars (Durant, 1950, Part IV, p. 833). There is a doublet of purple satin embroidered with gold and silver thread and sewn all over with pearls belonging to Henry VIII (1491-1547) of England (Laver, 2002, p. 81). Jane Seymour, one of Henry’s courtiers, wore a chemise with the slashing interspersed with jewels and heavy embroidery (Cassin-Scott, 1999, p. 20).
The colors, coat of arms and devices embroidered on the court vestments worn by knights identified the Order to which they belonged. Knights belonging to the Order of the Golden Fleece, for example, an Order founded in 1429 in Bruges by Philip the Good, Duke of Burgundy, wore a dark red velvet mantle with designs embroidered in gold. Knights of the Order of St. Stephen of Hungary, founded in 1764 by the Empress Maria Theresa of Austria, wore a green velvet mantle with a full train and over sleeves with patterns embroidered in gold. Knights belonging to the Order of the Iron Crown, founded by Napoleon after his coronation as King of Lombardy in 1805, wore a cape and collar of deep purple velvet stitched with silver thread and foil, a yellow orange tunic with silver embroidery, and a purple velvet hat with silver embroidery (The Metropolitan Museum of Art, 1980, p. 117-122).
The Metropolitan Museum of Art (1980) has a number of garments from the Hapsburg era that are stitched with gold and silver embroideries. There is, for example, a dolman (a long loose garment with narrow sleeves and an opening in front) crafted of cranberry-colored velvet with gold and silver embroidery, and leather boots embroidered in gold with a grape leaf design worn by Count Domokos Bethen of Hungary when he attended Queen Victoria’s coronation in England in 1835 (p. 85). There are also two breathtaking dresses worn by the wife of Lord Chief Justice Gyorgy Majlath (1867-1896) of Hungary, one is a gala dress with a skirt of white silk moiré embroidered with gold tinsel and trimmed with gold lace, and the other is a court dress of white moiré with a train nearly ten feet long which is richly embroidered in gold (p. 86-87).
Outstanding Gold and Silver Embroidered Garments in Museum Collections
The Victoria and Alberta Museum have in their collection a number of silver stitched garments that were likely worn by the upper and middle classes. For example, an English woman’s linen bodice embroidered with silver and silver-gilt thread and silks, and trimmed with silver and silver-gilt bobbin lace and spangles, dated 1620 (Rothstein, 1984, p. 17). A brown worsted English cloak embroidered with silver and silver-gilt thread, dated 1670 (p. 145). A boy’s dress coat and breeches in fine red wool embroidered in silver thread, dated 1700-1705 (p. 145). A dress with profuse embroidery weighing about ten pounds dated 1743 (p. 23). Also on display there are French and Italian boys’ breeches and a waistcoat worn between 1800 and 1881. One of the breeches is in dark green wool with embroidered knee bands and buttons. The waistcoat, in plain silk, is enriched throughout with silver-thread and embroidered with silver-gilt (p. 150).
The Kyoto Costume Institute has published a two volume catalogue with 800 pages of superb eye-catching pictures of clothing worn between 1700 and 1900. There is, for instance, a 1820s French short sleeved gown with a bodice in white satin covered with white silk tulle and trimmed with lace at the neckline. The skirt, attached to the bodice at the waistline, is in red taffeta with a long train at the back. A golden-gilt bow circles the waist. The extravagant gown is completely embroidered with small delicate gold “fleur de lis”, and the scalloped edges of the train are stitched with gold leaves (Les collections du Kyoto Costume Institute, 2002, Volume I, p. 166).
EMBROIDERED PATTERNS IMITATING NATURE
Artistic embroideries imitating flora and fauna remained stylish for many centuries. In some societies, certain vegetation, animals, birds, and flowers had symbolic or spiritual meaning for the wearer. Embroidered patterns of flora and fauna also expressed images of beauty and fantasy through colors, texture, shapes and symmetry.
As far back as the 6th century BC, Persians embroidered a motif on their silk garments of a roundel or circle which was filled with a central stylized Tree of Life. On each side of the Tree were paired forms of flowers, birds such as eagles and peacocks, and winged lions. The roundel was surrounded by small embroidered rosettes or stars. The early Chinese embroidered their silk garments with spirited symbols like the blue and green dragons, red birds, white tigers, and black tortoises. Dragons, for example, represented thunder and lightning, and the rain which followed meant good luck and happiness (Harris & Johnson, 1971, p. 42-43; 116-117).
The early Romans had a passion for embroidered flowers. Their tunics were decorated with scroll patterns of honeysuckles, roses, acanthus and laurels (Lester, 1956, p. 745). Constantine (272 – 326 AD), a Roman Emperor, was said to wear a robe of gold tissue embroidered with floral patterns (Laver, 2002, p. 46).
During the period 700-1300 AD, ecclesiastical vestments were usually richly embroidered with scrollwork and foliated spirals (Cowans, 2010), and according to Durant (1950), priestly vestments were often stitched with sacred or profane texts inlaid with pearls. Durant explains that some vestments were so heavily stitched with gold threads, jewels, and small enamel plaques that the priest so robed could hardly walk (Part IV, p. 833, 850).
Flora and Fauna Embroideries Worn in European Courts
From 1300 to 1620, European men wore flamboyant garments stitched with flora and fauna motifs (Cassin-Scott, 1999, p. 32). After 1620, they started to wear plainer clothing. However, between the 1770s and 1780s, it became trendy for men to wear clothing stitched with whimsical trailing plants and sprays of flowers. These patterns were often enriched with coloured foils and pastes (Rothstein, 1984, p. 58). With respect to women, clothing embroidered with patterns of flora and fauna remained popular over the years.
In England, the Lords of Dorset were reputed to wear extravagant garments. For instance, an outfit worn by the third Lord of Dorset (1589-1624) consisted of a doublet of silver cloth embroidered all over with honeysuckle flowers in black and gold. A similar floral pattern decorated his gauntlets. The earl’s trunk hose repeated the same motif, but in reverse. Whereas, the fourth lord of Dorset had a preference for clothing completely embroidered with red roses and pansies (Angelino of Brioni, 2000, p. 15).
The Duchess of Bedford (1783-1857) had a flair for elaborately embroidered clothing. There is one of her petticoats, dated 1740, on display in The Victoria and Albert Museum. The petticoat, in green Paduasoy (a heavy silk), is embroidered very richly with gold, silver, and colored threads, and the patterns consist of festoons of shells, coral, corn, corn-flowers and sea-weeds (Rothstein, 1984, p. 22).
Floral embroideries were also quite fashionable in the Russian court during the period of Prince Potemkin (1739-1791). A number of the costly embroidered velvet suits he wore for grand occasions at the court have survived. Among these are coats embroidered along the edges, on the cuffs, and on and around the pocket flaps. The stitching “always takes the form of flowers, which appear as delicate sprays of blooms and buds set amid branching greenery and are often embellished by two peacock feathers” (Angelino of Brioni, 2000, p. 22).
Flora and Fauna Embroideries in Museum Collections
In its collection, The Victoria and Albert Museum has a striking dress made from ribbed silk stitched with silver thread in a design showing a tree bearing fantastic fruit and flowers, dated around 1740. They also have an American blue-black silk velvet evening dress trimmed with bead and sequin embroideries, and the bead-embroidered net covering the bodice is stitched with butterflies, dated 1894 (Rothstein, 1984, p. 46-47). The Metropolitan Museum of Art (1980) has a number of Hungarian women’s’ skirts worn between 1770 and 1780. The skirts’ hems and waistbands are embroidered with naturalistic Rococo flowers such as poppies, margaritas, and daisies (p. 84).
EARY DESIGNERS AND THEIR SPLENDID EMBROIDERIES
The first Parisian Haute Couturiers recognized the beauty and richness of embroideries and would include a few lavishly embroidered pieces in their fashion collections. In Les collections du Kyoto Costume Institute (2002) there are a number of exquisitely stitched creations from early couturiers such as Charles Worth (1825-1897), Paul Poiret (1897-1944), Madeleine Vionnet (1876-1925), and others.
In 1900, Charles Worth presented a fabulous “Robe du soir” in green silk mousseline with a green velvet bodice stitched in the Japanese tradition with motifs of plants, shorelines, and waves, and embroidered with sequins (Vol. I, p. 306-307). In 1923, Paul Poiret showed a black wool twill Mandarin coat embroidered with chrysanthemums and with imaginary birds surrounded by branches. He also featured a “Robe de jour” in white linen with airy rectangular patterns embroidered with white thread and inlaid with red pearls. A stitched outline of a large bird graces the front bodice, and the neckline is trimmed with small embroidered circles (Vol. II, p 418-419; 424-425). During the period 1920-1924, Madeleine Vionnet fashioned a Robe du soir” in black silk taffeta with black lace trim. The dress was embroidered in geometric Aztec patterns with threads of gold and silver, and pearls, sequins, and false emeralds were inlaid in the patterns (Vol. II, p. 414-415).
In the years which followed, many designers continued to include beautiful embroidered garments in their collections. In the Spring/Summer 1937 collection, Elsa Schiaparelli showed a black velvet night cape, the back of which was completely covered with embroidered mythical images of a goddess on a lion surrounded by four horses, and other designs. The images were stitched with gold thread and decorated with sequins and pearls (Les collections du Kyoto Costume Institute , 2002, Vol. II, p. 472-473). In the Spring/Summer 1962 collection, Yves St. Laurent presented a greenish silk faille dress with heavy embroidery of darker greenish/gold flowers to which pearls and sequins were stitched (Vol. II, p. 536-537). In the Spring/Summer 1999 collection, Tom Ford for Gucci, showed a youthful short jean skirt covered with silk floral embroideries and sequins (Vol. II, 668-669).

CONCLUSION
In the past, the art of hand-embroidery served to display one’s status and wealth, and to communicate to others one’s view of Beauty, Nature and Reality. Needlework went beyond enriching clothing and accessories. It was also used to decorate household items such as bed linens, cushions, furniture covers, window curtains, and other items. The fascination for needlework as a means of embellishing clothing is an enduring art. To this day, fashion designers continue to dazzle us with their imaginative embroideries combined with their creative touches of sparkles and glitter.
An example of modern embroidery from Dolce and Gabbana
BIBLIOGRAPHY